Hu, Xuerui; (2024) Negotiating Heteronormativity: Exploring the Reproductive Pathways and Struggles of Lesbian Mothers in Contemporary China. Doctoral thesis (Ph.D), UCL (University College London).

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Abstract

This thesis explores the reproductive experiences of lesbians in mainland China through 30 biographical-narrative interviews with self-identified lesbian mothers. The participants in this study adopted diverse reproductive strategies, including 1) having children outside of heterosexual marriage either with their partner or as single lesbians; 2) having children within a marriage to a gay man, without any biological relation between the husband and the baby; 3) collaborating with a gay man in both conception of a child and childrearing. This study used a multi-layered approach to explore how institutional regulations, patrilineal marriage, family ideology, and social reproduction organisation influenced their reproductive choices, interpretation and practices. The study revealed that normative reproduction in China is primarily confined to heterosexual, often intergenerational families. Firstly, state regulations on birth exclusively granted birth permits to married heterosexual couples only, but recent policy changes have allowed lesbians some negotiation room within the context of normative reproduction. Secondly, although patrilineal marriage has undergone significant changes in modern China, it still exerts considerable pressure on women to marry and bear children for the sake of the man’s family. Nevertheless, post- married life has become less subject to social and familial surveillance, thereby allowing lesbians space to negotiate their private lives after childbirth. Improved status for daughters within patrilineal families also enables lesbians to seek reproductive support outside heterosexual contexts. Thirdly, the family ideology in China places emphasis on biological connection, multigenerational bonds and prioritises childrearing, making reproduction a critical area for lesbians to redefine the concept of family and gain some social legitimacy for their same-sex relationships. These findings, which can be encapsulated in the concept of ‘reproductive heteronormativity’, underscore the significance of the reproductive domain in comprehending the workings of heteronormativity in the Chinese context.

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