ࡱ > I K D E F G H bjbj 4r + ^ ^ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ 8 $ $ ' $ b . ^ S/ i/ i/ i/ X0 > 0 0 b b b b b b b e Kh Z b $ 0 X0 X0 0 0 b $ $ i/ i/ b : : : 0 F $ i/ $ i/ b : 0 b : : [ 0 b_ i/ keJM $ 6 \ $ rb b 0 b "] @ h : d h H b_ h $ b_ 0 0 : 0 0 0 0 0 b b : 0 0 0 b 0 0 0 0 h 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ^ g# : Does active engagement in community music support the quality of life of older people?
Susan Hallam1, Andrea Creech1, Maria Varvarigou1, Hilary McQueen1 and Helena Gaunt2
1Institute of Education, University of London
2Guildhall school of Music and Drama
Contact: Susan Hallam, Institute of Education, University of London, 20 Bedford Way, London, WC1H OAL
E-mail s.hallam @ioe.ac.uk
Phone 0207 612 6371
Abstract
Background: There is considerable evidence that participating in music making can have benefits for children and young people. This research explored how participation in making music might support the social, emotional and cognitive well-being of older people.
Methods: Comparisons were made between older people participating in a wide range of musical and other activities in relation to their responses to questionnaires and psychological needs scales (the CASP-12 and the Basic Needs Satisfaction Scale, Deci and Ryan, 2000). Comparisons were also made between those older people participating in the musical activities who were in the 3rd and 4th ages.
Results: Factor analysis of responses revealed three factors: Purpose (having a positive outlook on life); Autonomy and Control; and Social Affirmation (positive social relationships, competence and a sense of recognised accomplishment). Comparisons between those participating in the music groups and those participating in other activities revealed statistically significant differences on all three factors with the music groups giving more positive responses. There was also no deterioration in responses in the music groups between those in the 3rd and 4th ages as might have been expected except in relation to purpose.
Conclusions: Actively participating in making music has beneficial effects on the wellbeing of older people. Further research needs to identify the mechanisms through which music is able to achieve these effects.
Key words: music, community music, psychology, well-being
Introduction
The developed world is currently facing a major demographic transition. In the UK, the number of people over 65 is projected to reach 21.3 million by 2071, those over 80 reaching 9.5 million (GOScience, 2008), with an estimate of 64,000 expected to reach the age of 100 by 2033 (Office for National Statistics, 2011). These changes present considerable economic challenges to policy makers as they attempt to meet the ever increasing demand for support for the elderly. As a result, ways to maintain the well-being and the good health of the ageing population are becoming increasingly important particularly as people progress from the 3rd age (where they typically continue to have active lives) to the 4th age where there tends to be greater physical and cognitive decline (Laslett, 1989). The research reported here explores the possibility that active engagement with making music may contribute to this agenda.
Some research has demonstrated that participation in music can provide a source of enhanced social cohesion, enjoyment, personal development and empowerment ADDIN EN.CITE Sixsmith200731731717Sixsmith, A.Gibson, G.Music and the wellbeing of people with dementiaAgeing and SocietyAgeing and Society127-1452712007(Sixsmith & Gibson, 2007) and that musically related social networks can contribute to recovery from depression and to the maintenance of personal well-being (Fullagar, 2008). Research focusing on singing in adults has suggested a range of specific benefits including:
physical relaxation and release of tension;
emotional release and reduction of feelings of stress;
a sense of happiness, positive mood, joy and elation;
a sense of greater personal, emotional and physical well-being;
an increased sense of arousal and energy;
stimulation of cognitive capacities attention, concentration, memory and learning;
an increased sense of self-confidence and self-esteem;
a sense of therapeutic benefit in relation to long-standing psychological and social problems;
a sense of exercising systems of the body through the physical exertion involved, especially the lungs;
a sense of disciplining the skeletal-muscular system through the adoption of good posture; and
being engaged in a valued, meaningful, worthwhile activity that gives a sense of purpose and motivation (Clift et al., 2008; Stacey et al., 2002).
In a review of 48 studies of group singing of which eight included samples of people aged over 50, Clift et al. (2010) suggested that group singing could promote social and personal well-being, encourage social participation and reduce anxiety and depression (Wise et al., 1992; Zanini and Leao, 2006; Lally, 2009; Sandgren, 2009). Cohen (2006; 2007) carried out non-randomised controlled studies with 166 participants with a mean age of 80 who participated in 30 singing workshops and ten performances over one year. The participants, in comparison with control groups, reported fewer health issues, fewer falls, fewer doctors visits and less use of medication. In the UK, Hillman (2002) surveyed 75 participants who had participated in a community singing project since reaching the statutory retirement age. Long-term benefits attributed to participation in music included overall improvements to the quality of life and no overall deterioration in physical health. Lower mortality rates are also evident amongst those who make music or sing in a choir ADDIN EN.CITE Byrgen199632832817Byrgen, L.A.Konlaan, B.B.Johnasson, W.E.Attendance at cultural events, reading books or periodicals, and making music or singing in a choir as determinants for survival: Swedish interview survey of living conditionsBritish Medical JournalBritish Medical Journal1577-15803131996(Byrgen, Konlaan, & Johnasson, 1996).
Listening to music forms part of many everyday activities for older people and represents a frequent source of positive emotions ADDIN EN.CITE Laukka200731931917Laukka, P.Uses of music and psychological well-being among the elderlyJournal of happiness studiesJournal of happiness studies215-241822007(Laukka, 2007). Hays and Minichiello ADDIN EN.CITE Hays200531831817Hays, T.Minichiello, V.The contribution of music to quality of life in older people: an Australian qualitative studyAgeing & SocietyAgeing & Society261-2782522005(2005) used focus groups and in-depth interviews to explore the relationship between music-making and identity amongst 52 people aged between 60 and 98 and found that listening to music and active music making were associated with social and emotional well-being, offering a medium through which participants could express themselves and connect with others. Similarly, Taylor and Hallam (2008) used qualitative methods to explore musical self-concept amongst a group of eight keyboard learners aged over 60, reporting that learning a musical instrument contributed to feelings of satisfaction, achievement and self-confidence.
Intergenerational research also offers insights. Saarikallio (2010) carried out a qualitative study of 21 Finnish adults aged 21-70, investigating the use of music (listening and active participation) for emotional self-regulation. For the oldest participants, singing or participating in instrumental ensembles offered opportunities for alleviating loneliness and coping with the challenges of ageing, providing opportunities for progression and enjoyment and adding a depth of meaning to life. Focusing on instrumental ensembles, Gembris (2008) used questionnaires to explore the function of amateur music-making amongst a group of 308 adults aged 40-97. Participants attributed enjoyment, happiness and community belongingness to their musical engagement. Although many reported age-related constraints, they also identified compensatory strategies and generally maintained a strong musical self-concept.
The aim of the study reported here was to explore the impact of active engagement with music (mainly, although not exclusively performing) on the quality of life of a sample of older people in the UK, quality of life being interpreted as self-perceived well-being (Daatland, 2006) although it is acknowledged that there are many alternative definitions (Smith, 2000). A needs satisfaction approach was adopted, conceptualising self-perceived well-being as reflecting the extent to which basic human needs are perceived to be met. While this approach is viewed as problematic by some as it is insensitive to differences between social groups and societies and indifferent to the dynamic nature of attitudes (Allinson et al., 1997; Hornquist, 1990) it is increasingly being recognized as valid (Doyal and Gough 1991). This is supported by evidence that well-being is only weakly related to demographic variables such as age, sex, marital status and ethnicity (Andrews and Robinson, 1991), while positive affect, control beliefs and (in older age) accommodation are associated with cognitive and emotional well-being (Lang and Heckhausen, 2001).
Several models of human psychological needs have been proposed (for example, Deci and Ryan, 2000; Steverink and Lindenberg, 2006), but Higgs et al. (2003) argue that the changing nature of ageing demands a special consideration of what might be essential needs in older age. Increasingly, psychological needs for social participation, autonomy and choice are being seen as salient. For instance, McKenna et al. (1999) suggest that models relating to older adult life need to move away from a focus on function and emphasise the reasons why individuals want to accomplish things. From this perspective, leisure activities and social networking provide the means by which needs may be fulfilled. Daatland (2005, pp. 375-376) suggests that successful ageing, and indeed quality of life, has to do with the road (process) more than the destination (end state) to have goals and a motivation to try and reach them.
While basic needs are thought to remain stable over the life-course, their relative salience changes over time. Steverink and Lindberg (2006) proposed a model of basic needs that comprises affection, behavioural confirmation and status. The model was tested in the Netherlands with a sample of 1322 community-dwelling people aged 65-98 (mean age 74), treating measures of these three needs as potential predictors of reported well-being. The results indicated that, as expected, older people experienced loss in terms of satisfaction of their needs for behavioural confirmation and status. However, even when older people experienced high levels of affection, the other needs continued to be associated with perceived well-being. Their importance did not diminish with advancing age or with increasing levels of physical decline. Higgs et al. (1993) draw attention to the positive dimensions of ageing. Their model of essential needs stresses the role of control and autonomy in sustaining full personal and social development through later years and includes self realisation as well as the pursuit of pleasurable activities. The dimensions of self realisation and pleasure, they argue, are underpinned by autonomy and control. Autonomy and control may thus be conceptualised as internal resources to be exploited in pursuit of activities that foster pleasure, fulfil goals and provide a sense of purpose.
Self-determination theory is also relevant to research on the ageing population (Deci and Ryan, 2000). Here basic needs are conceptualized as competence, autonomy and relatedness. These, it is argued, must be satisfied in a sustained fashion in order for humans to function optimally as they strive for effectiveness, connectedness and coherence. From this perspective, the presence or absence of environmental conditions that facilitate the satisfaction of these needs may be a predictor of mental health and vitality. These environmental conditions might include factors such as social belongingness or having interesting, revitalizing and challenging goals. A crucial issue for the research reported here is the extent to which such basic needs are satisfied by the process of pursuing such goals through music in community settings. The specific research questions were:
are there differences in responses to quality of life measures between older people participating in active music making as opposed to other group activities;
are there changes in the short term in relation to such measures when individuals are engaged in group activities; and
to what extent are there changes in quality of life between those in the 3rd and 4th age actively engaged in making music?
Method
Design: Data were collected from three sites where older people engaged with musical activity. Comparisons were also undertaken with a comparison group participating in non-musical activities. Site 1, the Silver Programme at the Sage Gateshead provided a wide range of musical opportunities for people over the age of 50 including singing of many kinds, the playing of steel pans, guitars, ukulele, recorder, and activities involving folk ensemble, music theory, and samba. The programme aimed to develop the current and past skills of participants as well as encouraging and developing new and emerging ones, enhancing musical abilities and encouraging positive mental and physical heath. Participants had the opportunity to perform regularly in public concerts. Site 2, the Connect Programme of the Guildhall School of Music and Drama ran community projects with people of all ages in East London. The projects were distinctive in that their focus was on activities where participants created and performed music together, linking story-telling and reminiscing to creative music-making. The musical activities with older people took place in the community rooms of sheltered housing accommodation in East London. The activities included intergenerational music sessions involving older people making music with children from local primary schools. Site 3, Westminster Adult Education Service (WAES) music department ran a wide range of musical programmes in a range of musical genres, specializing in singing, playing instruments, sound engineering and using sequencers, music theory and composing. A comparison group comprised adults involved in a range of activities which involved attending classes other than music. These included individuals attending language classes (4 groups); art/craft classes (5 groups); yoga; social support (2 groups); a book group; and a social club. All of the comparison groups apart from the book group were based in the London area; the book group was based in a rural area of England.
The measures: Questionnaires asked participants to provide demographic and background information about their previous musical experiences including instruments played, levels reached, ability to read notation and music in their daily lives. The CASP-12 measure of quality of life and the Basic Psychological Needs test (Deci and Ryan, 2000) were also included. The questionnaires were produced with a large font size suitable for participants with vision difficulties.
CASP-12 measure of quality of life: This measure is derived from the model proposed by Higgs et al. (1993) originally comprising 19 items representing the sub-scales of control, autonomy, self-realisation and pleasure. Control is conceptualised as the ability to actively intervene in ones environment, while autonomy is the right to be free from the unwanted interference of others. Self-realisation represents the more reflexive nature of life, while pleasure refers to the sense of fun derived from the more active (doing) aspects of life (Wiggins et al., 2007, p. 5). Following extensive research with participants from the Boyd-Orr survey of childhood diet and health in the 1930s (see Hyde et al., 2003), the first wave of the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA_1; N = 9300) and the 11th wave of the British Household Panel Survey (BHPS_11; N = 6471) the number of items was reduced from 19 to 12 and the control and autonomy sub-scales combined. The shortened 12-item version of CASP was found to have stronger measurement properties than the original CASP-19 measure and was recommended for future applications (Wiggins et al., 2007). Cronbach Alphas derived from ELSA 1 and BHPS 11 were 0.67 and 0.66 for control, 0.45 and 0.46 for autonomy, 0.77 and 0.76 for self-realization and 0.80 and 0.77 for pleasure. The CASP-12 quality of life measure is a four point Likert scale, comprising 12 individual items. The points on the scale range from 1 = never to 4 = often. The twelve items are organised into four subscales (control, autonomy, self realisation and pleasure) comprising three items in each.
Basic Psychological Needs Scales: This scale has 21 items assessed on a 7 point scale (Deci and Ryan, 2000). The three subscales are conceptualized as competence, autonomy and relatedness. The points on the scale range from 1 = not at all true to 7 = very true. The 21 items are organised into three subscales. Subscales for autonomy and relatedness each comprise seven individual indicators, while the subscale for competence comprises six individual indicators. An extensive body of research demonstrates a relationship between well-being and satisfaction of these three subscales (see Johnston and Finney, 2010 for a review). Gagne (2003) reported Cronbach Alpha values for the three sub-scales as: autonomy = 0.69; relatedness = 0.86; and competence = 0.71. The overall index of general need satisfaction has a Cronbach Alpha value of 0.89. Although, the scale has been used extensively, there has been little in the way of rigorous study of its psychometric properties (Johnston and Finney, 2010) but as the conceptual framework is similar to the CASP-12 it was considered appropriate to provide triangulation.
Procedures
The questionnaires were completed twice, initially in October 2009 (time 1) and then in June 2010 at the end of the music sessions for the year (time 2). Two hundred and ninety questionnaires were completed by participants from the Sage, Gateshead at time 1 and 108 at time 2. Twenty nine participants completed the questionnaire at time 1 from the Westminster Adult Education Service (WAES) and 31 at time 2, while 18 questionnaires were returned during time 1 and 8 at time 2 from the Connect Programme of the Guildhall School of Music & Drama. Eighty-nine participants in the various control groups completed the first questionnaire while 36 completed the second. Questionnaires were distributed by the music facilitators, returned to them in envelopes to ensure confidentiality and then returned to the researchers.
Participants
A total of 500 older people took part in the study, including 398 (80%) who were involved in musical groups and 102 (20%) who participated in other kinds of activities such as language groups, book groups, yoga and social clubs. The sample was predominantly female (81%).
The majority of the participants in both the music and non-music activities were over the age of 50, with the exception of one of the choirs and the language groups in the WAES programme that were open to all adults. The ages of the participants were widely spread with a range of 43 years. The oldest participant was 93 and the youngest 43. In the sample only 3 participants in the activities were under 50. These were omitted from the analysis. Of those participating in the music groups, 246 (73%) were in the 3rd age (50-75) while 92 (23%) were in the 4th age (over 75). Of those participating in the non-musical activities 62 (75%) were in the 3rd age and 21 (21%) in the 4th age.
There were no statistically significant differences in socio-economic status between the music and non-music groups. In both groups there was a preponderance of those in professional occupations assessed by the Standard Occupational Classification (Office for National Statistics, 2010).
Ninety-nine of the participants responded to a question about whether they had recently experienced major life changes. Forty percent of that sample indicated that they had experienced life changes relating to personal health, family issues and employment.
Of those not participating in musical activities thirty seven individuals responded to a question about musical participation. Of these 5 said that music had never been important (14%), 20 indicated that they enjoyed music from time to time (54%) while 12 said that it played a central role in their lives (32%).
From the music groups 248 participants indicated that they had been involved in group musical activities prior to the research. This constituted 76% of those who responded to the question. Some had been involved in more than one activity. Most had been involved in singing in a choir (50%). Of those participating in the musical activities, 161 were involved in at least 2 activities at the centre that they were attending, 49 were involved in 3 activities and 15 in 4 activities.
Those participating in the music groups were asked about the instruments that they played. One hundred and fifty nine participants indicated a first instrument. Of these 82 (51.6%) played the piano, 25 played the ukulele (15.7%) and 23 guitar (14.5%). Smaller numbers of participants played the recorder, drums, violin, steel pans/drums, flute, trumpet, bass, folk instruments, pan pipes or engaged in theoretical studies. Fifty five participants reported playing another instrument. The most common was the ukulele.
Participants self-assessed their attainment on their first instrument as a child. Twenty one percent considered themselves to be beginners, 42% average, 32% good and 6% very good. When asked to assess the level attained in their best instrument as an adult more classified themselves as beginners (29%) while 40% considered themselves as average, 28% as good and 4% as very good.
73% of the sample (238 individuals) actively engaged in making music indicated that they could read music. Of these 44% indicated that their level of competency was basic, 28% indicated that it was average, 20% good and 8% very good.
Participants in the musical activities were asked to indicate what role active and passive musical engagement played in their daily lives. Of those who responded, 26% said that they often practised at home, while 42% never did so. Eighty percent reported that they sometimes or often sang at home, while 20% said that they either never sang at home, or not often. Over 90% indicated that playing or singing with others was something they did sometimes or often. A majority of the sample indicated that they listened to recorded or live music, sometimes or often (Table 1).
Table 1 about here
Results
Data from the CASP-12 and the Basic Needs Satisfaction Scale quality of life measures were used to compare responses from those participating in musical activities and non-musical activities and those in the 3rd and 4th ages (for this research the age bands 50-75 years (3rd age) and 76+ (4th age) were used although it is acknowledged that these are contested (Schuller and Watson, 2009). Comparisons were also made between measures taken at the beginning and end of the project.
The CASP-12 measure: A multivariate analysis was undertaken of the items in the CASP 12 measure to avoid the risk of Type 1 errors through using multiple tests (Field, 2009). MANOVA also takes account of the correlations that might exist between the dependent variables. Using Pillais trace statistic there was a significant effect of participation in a music or non music group on the elements of the CASP 12 test (V = .119, F(12,392) = 4.417, p < .0001). Table 2 sets out the differences between those participating in active music making and those engaging with other activities. More positive responses were made by those participating in the musical activities to most statements, and most differences were statistically significant, although the effect sizes were small.
Table 2 about here
The items in the CASP 12 measure were summed into the 4 components of the scale, control, autonomy, self-realisation and pleasure. Analysis of variance considering the differences between those participating in the music groups and those in other activities showed statistically significant differences in relation to control and pleasure but not autonomy or self-realisation (see Table 3). Those participating in the musical activities scored significantly higher on control and pleasure, although the effect sizes were small.
Table 3 about here
Comparisons were made between responses made at the start of the project and its completion. This was broadly a period of 9 months although for individual participants the time scale for completion of the questionnaire may have varied. These analyses were undertaken for those who had been involved in musical activities for some time and those who were relative novices. Seventy six percent of respondents had participated in musical activity prior to the project, 24% were inexperienced in music. There were no statistically significant differences over the period of the research in any of the CASP-12 scores for the whole of the music sample or for the novice sample. Similarly, there were no statistically significant differences over the two time scales for those in the control groups.
Comparisons were made for the music groups of responses to the CASP-12 measure between those in the 3rd (aged 50-75) and 4th ages (76+). Although there were participants in the non-music groups who were in the 4th age, insufficient had completed enough of the questionnaire to enable analysis to be undertaken. Analysis of variance of responses from the music groups revealed no statistically significant differences between those participating in active music making on measures of autonomy and pleasure. There were statistically significant differences relating to control, self-realisation and the overall score, with 4th age participants having lower scores, as might have been expected. What is surprising is the lack of significant differences in relation to autonomy and pleasure (see Table 4). It seems that engaging in musical activities may sustain levels of perceived autonomy and maintain perceptions of life being pleasurable into the 4th age.
Table 4 about here
The Basic Needs Satisfaction Scale (Deci and Ryan, 2000): Using multivariate analysis of variance comparisons were made between the responses of those participating in the music and non-music groups. The analysis was based on a sample of 291 music participants and 62 non-music participants. Pillais trace statistic revealed a significant effect of music as opposed to non-music participation on the individual elements of the scale (V = .184, F(21, 331) = 3.54, p < .0001). Table 5 sets out the details. There were few differences between those participating in musical or other activities. Where there were differences in responses these were more positive from the musical groups.
Table 5 about here
The individual elements of the Basic Needs Satisfaction Scale (Deci and Ryan, 2000) were summed into their sub-components (control, autonomy and relatedness) and comparisons between those participating in the music and non-music groups were made. There were no statistically significant differences between music and non-music participants on measures of autonomy or competence. However there were differences in relation to relatedness and in relation to the total score representing all three of the sub-scales combined (see Table 6). Those participating in the musical activities responded more positively, although the effect sizes were relatively small.
Table 6 about here
An analysis was undertaken of changes over the period of the research. There were no statistically significant differences for those participating in the music groups who had prior musical experience and those who had not participated prior to the project. There were insufficient data to enable analysis to be undertaken for the control groups.
Comparisons were made between those in the 3rd and 4th age in the music groups in relation to the sub-components of the Basic Needs Satisfaction Scale. There were no statistically significant differences in relation to autonomy or relatedness or scores across the whole scale as might have been expected although those in the 4th age scored lower on competence (see 7). This suggests that participation in musical activities sustains perceptions of autonomy and relatedness into the 4th age.
Table 7 about here
Discriminant analysis
A discriminant analysis was undertaken to explore whether items from both scales would discriminate between the music and non-music groups. The analysis with an eigenvalue of .345 and a canonical correlation of .507 significantly differentiated between the groups with a Wilks Lamda of .743 (X2 (33) = 95.92, p = .0001). The standardised canonical discriminant function coefficients and the structure matrix are set out in Table 8. The group centroids were -.276 for those participating in music and 1.245 for the non-music groups. Eighty-five percent of the original grouped cases were correctly classified with 93.9% of those participating in music being correctly classified and 54.8% of those in the non-music groups. This analysis lends support to the analyses of variance suggesting that participating in musical activities has a positive impact on well-being in later life.
Table 8 about here
Factor analysis
A principal component analysis (PCA) with orthogonal rotation (varimax) was undertaken to explore the relationships between the two measures of quality of life (CASP-12 and Basic Psychological Needs Scale). The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure verified the sampling adequacy for the analysis (KMO = .849) and all KMO values for individual items were well above the acceptable limit of 0.5 (Field, 2009). Bartletts test of sphericity (X2 (528) = 4040.336, p = .0001) indicated that the correlations between items were sufficiently large for PCA. Analysis of the scree plot suggested that the most appropriate solution was a three factor solution. Factor 1 had an eigenvalue of 7.5, Factor 2 an eigenvalue of 2.9 and Factor 3 of 2.2. Together these accounted for 38.3% of the variance. Table 9 shows the factor loadings after rotation. Loadings below 0.2 have been eliminated from the Table. The key indicators for each factor have been highlighted in bold. The loadings for the components on Factor 1 suggest that this factor relates to a sense of purpose and a positive outlook on life. Factor 2 shows high ratings on statements relating to lack of autonomy and control, while Factor 3 focuses on positive social relationships, competence and a sense of recognised accomplishment. The three factors were labelled as 1) sense of purpose, 2) autonomy/control and 3) social affirmation.
Table 9 about here
Comparison of factor scores between those participating in music and non-music groups
Factor scores for each individual were used to compare those participating in the music and non-music groups. There were statistically significant differences between the groups on each factor with the scores of those participating in the music groups indicating more positive responses (see Table 10), although the effect sizes were small. Comparisons were also made between music participants in the 3rd and 4th ages. There were no statistically significant differences between 3rd and 4th agers on factors 2 and 3. The scores on Factor 1 (sense of purpose) were lower for those in the 4th age (see Table 11). This suggests that actively participating in music making can maintain perceptions of autonomy, control and social affirmation into the 4th age.
Tables 10 and 11 about here
Discussion
The findings from the research suggest that those actively engaged with making music exhibit higher levels of quality of life than those engaged in other group activities with particular reference to having a sense of purpose, feeling in control and autonomous in their lives, and receiving affirmation through positive social relationships which provide them with respect and status, although the effect sizes are small. The findings could be interpreted as indicating that engaging in music has additional value beyond other group work, perhaps because of the social nature of music making, the rewarding nature of performance, and the impact of music on mood. Alternatively, the findings could be interpreted as showing that those individuals who had chosen to engage with music as opposed to other activities already had higher perceived levels of control, autonomy, sense of purpose and positive social relationships. As a sizeable proportion of the sample had been involved in making music prior to the research being undertaken, interpretation is complex.
There was no evidence of deterioration in autonomy/control or social affirmation between 3rd and 4th agers in the music groups, although there was a decline in sense of purpose. Unfortunately, participants in the non-musical activities failed to complete sufficient of the questionnaire to enable comparisons to be made between those in the 3rd and 4th age in the non-music groups. It may be that any type of group work is effective in promoting well-being. Certainly there was no deterioration in music or non-music groups during the period of the research albeit that this was a relatively short space of time. Further research will need to address these issues.
What is it about group music making activities that may contribute towards self-perceived well-being beyond participation in other social activities? Those in the comparison groups were engaged in a wide variety of activities including those focusing on physical activity, e.g. yoga classes; intellectual stimulation, e.g. language classes, book clubs; creative activities, e.g. art and craft classes and social activities, e.g. social support. Participation in music making provides stimulation in relation to all of these. In addition, group music making can support sense of purpose particularly when performances are planned. It also provides opportunities for having fun and deriving pleasure. Control and autonomy may be supported through: the physical activity involved in singing and playing instruments; the positive emotions that derive from music making which may impact to reduce depression; being challenged and given the opportunity to learn new skills and enhance already existing skills; and the nature of active music making which requires focus and concentration at a specific point in time which is not self-determined. Social affirmation may be supported through the opportunities provided for: social interaction; giving and receiving peer support; and performance which confers status, a sense of giving something back to the community, pride and opportunities for positive reinforcement.
Those participating in the music and other groups were typical of those who tend to engage in such organized educational activities with the majority being from higher socio-economic groups. For most participants, although not all, across all activities, there was a small charge for participation. This may have had an impact on the extent to which respondents reported benefits. However, drop-outs in the music groups were minimal and only related to ill health suggesting that participants genuinely valued the activities and felt that they were worth the monetary commitment. Many, although not all, of those participating in the musical activities had been involved at school in music making beyond the normal school curriculum, in choirs or playing instruments in various ensembles. Those selecting music as an activity of choice in later life may do so based on previous experiences with music. The extent to which this is the case requires further research.
Those participating in the research were engaged in a wide variety of musical activities including singing in small and large groups, rock groups, and classes for guitar, ukulele, steel pans, percussion, recorder, music appreciation and keyboard. The genres of music engaged with also varied widely. No attempt was made in this research to differentiate between the impact of engagement with different musical genres or activities. Further research might explore whether certain musical activities are more powerful in relation to promoting well-being than others, although musical preferences which we know are important in determining the benefits of music (e.g. Cassidy and MacDonald, 2009) are likely to play a major role.
In conclusion, the evidence presented here suggests that active music making in a social context has the potential to enhance quality of life, well-being and physical and mental health in older people. The evidence presented is not conclusive. It was not based on a randomized sample but a self-selecting group. However, the comparison groups were also self-selecting and responded marginally less positively to the various measures of well-being suggesting that there may be something about musical engagement which has a more powerful impact. Why this might be requires further investigation.
Acknowledgements
The research reported here was funded through the New Dynamics of Ageing Programme a joint research programme funded by ESRC and AHRC. The authors would also like to thank all those who participated from the Sage, Gateshead, The Westminster Adult Education Programme and the Guildhall School of Music Connect Programme.
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Table 1: Reported engagement with music in daily life of participants in music groups
Engagement with musicNumber and %NeverNot oftenSometimesOftenTotal (100%)Practise at home111 42%25 9%61 23%70 26%267 Sing at home22 7%41 13%132 43%110 36%305Play or sing with others12 4%16 5%80 26%201 65%309Listen to recorded music3 1%11 3%97 30%213 66%324Listen to live music6 2%54 17%155 50%96 31%311Play music in background20 6%43 13%85 26%175 54%323
Table 2: Differences between those participating in music and other groups on CASP-12
CASP-12 indicatorsThose in the music groups
Mean score*SDThose in the non-music groups
Mean score*SDSIGEffect sizeMy age prevents me from doing the things I would like to do.1.88.862.42.89F = 25.04 p = .0001.024I feel that what happens to me is out of my control.1.90.832.26.76F = 13.03 p = 0001.17I feel left out of things.1.73.742.05.74F = 12.64 p = .0001.17I can do the things I want to do.3.62.803.50.74F = 1.246 NS.03I feel that I can please myself in what I do.3.59.793.60.69F = .005 NS.04I feel that the future looks good for me. 3.46.713.06.91F = 18.77 p = .0001.04I feel that life is full of opportunities.3.50.763.07.90F = 19.87 p = .0001.11I feel full of energy these days.3.22.742.90.72F = 12.40 p = .0001.18I enjoy the things that I do.3.88.473.63.55F = 16.60 p = .0001.19I feel that my life has meaning.3.69.633.39.71F = 14.04 p = .0001.16 look forward to each day.3.74.593.56.60F = 5.78 p = .017.21Shortage of money stops me from doing things I want to do.**2.25.932.40.98F = 1.72 NS.2*1 = never; 2 = not often; 3 = sometimes; 4 = often
** This item was reversed when calculating the total scale
Table 3: Differences between those participating in music and non-music groups on total and sub-scales of CASP-12
Music
Mean*SDNon music
Mean*SDEffect sizeControl9.43 (332)1.898.28 (85)1.90F = 25.3 (1,415) p = .0001.24Autonomy9.92 (338)1.839.67 (86)1.83F = 1.2 (1,422) NS.05Pleasure11.32 (335)1.510.59 (87)1.61F = 15.73 (1,420) p = .0001.19Self-realisation10.38 (138)1.810.00 (31)1.82F = 3.59 (1,167) NS.08Total 40.98 (138)5.1339.67 (18)4.95F = .97 (1, 101) NS.1*Maximum score for subscales = 12; Maximum score for total scale = 48
* Figures in brackets indicate the sample size for that measure
Table 4:Comparison between 3rd and 4th age music group participants on total and sub-scales of CASP-12
ScaleThird age
Mean*SDFourth age
Mean*SDEffect sizeControl9.6 (239)1.768.93 (83)2.19F = 8.56 (1,320) p = .004.14Autonomy9.89 (243)1.8210.00 (85)1.91F = .229 (1,326) NS.006Pleasure11.38 (243)1.411.12 (83)1.71F = 1.91 (1, 324) NS.05Self realisation10.72 (64)1.879.75 (28)1.62F = 5.63 (1, 90) p = .02.26Total41.67 (61)4.8638.96 (21)5.45F = 4.87 (1,82) p = .03.24*Minimum score for subscales = 3, maximum score for subscales = 12; Minimum score for total scale = 12, maximum score for total scale = 48
* Figures in brackets indicate the sample size for that measure
Table 5: Comparisons between those participating in music and non-music groups on the Basic Needs Satisfaction Scale (Deci and Ryan, 2000)
Music groups
Mean*SDNon-music groups
Mean*SDSIGEffect size People in my life care about me.6.40.975.681.35F = 24.09 p = .0001.04In my daily life, I frequently have to do what I'm told.**1.871.362.111.35F = 1.68 NS.1I have been able to learn interesting new skills recently.5.371.825.611.74F = .91 NS.05I consider the people I regularly interact with to be my friends.5.981.185.241.53F = 17.96 p = .0001.08I generally feel free to express my ideas and opinions.5.631.395.481.59F = .529 NS.04I pretty much keep to myself and don't have a lot of social contacts.**1.971.452.031.53F = .095 NS.05I get along with people I come into contact with.6.031.045.821.13F = 1.92 NS.05People I know tell me I am good at what I do.4.801.374.941.68F = .454 NS .03I feel pressured in my life.**2.921.733.391.78F = 3.59 NS.21Often, I do not feel very competent.**3.721.683.761.63F = .029 NS.01I really like the people I interact with.6.171.035.841.38F = 4.6 p = .03.04I feel like I am free to decide for myself how to live my life.5.911.395.821.56F = .18 NS.025Most days I feel a sense of accomplishment from what I do.5.481.284.761.15F = 16.65 p = .0001.02People I interact with on a daily basis tend to take my feelings into consideration.5.581.205.811.5F = .224 NS.04In my life I do not get much of a chance to show how capable I am.**2.821.673.151.79F = 1.93 NS.05There are not many people that I am close to.**2.761.903.021.85F = .92 NS.01I feel like I can pretty much be myself in my daily situations.5.911.385.561.69F = 2.97 NS.07The people I interact with regularly do not seem to like me much.**1.641.021.791.13F = 1.123 NS.01I often do not feel very capable.**2.801.722.841.59F = .021 NS.05There is not much opportunity for me to decide for myself how to do things in my daily life.**1.781.402.261.64F = 5.7 p = .018.11People are generally pretty friendly towards me.6.31.955.761.53F = 13.3 p = .0001.018*1= not at all true; 4 = somewhat true; 7 = very true; minimum score = 1, maximum score = 7.
** This item was reversed when calculating the total scale
Table 6: Comparisons between music participants and non-participants on the sub-components of the Basic Needs Satisfaction Scale (Deci and Ryan, 2000)
ScaleMusic groups
Mean*SDNon-music group
Mean*SDEffect sizeAutonomy 40.3 (319)5.7839.17 (72)9.6F = 1.74 (1,389) NS.07Competence 30.19 (308)5.4729.7 (70)6.05F = .442 (1,376) NS.03Relatedness48.17 (319)5.7945.73 (71)6.52F = 9.82 (1,388) p = 002.15Total119.2913.61113.9818.32F = 6.79 (1,361) p = .01.14* Autonomy and Relatedness: min. score = 7, max. score = 49; Competence: min. score = 6, max. score = 42; Total scale: min. score = 21, max. score = 147.
* Figures in brackets indicate the sample size for that measure
Table 7: Comparisons between those participating in the music activities in the 3rd and 4th age on the Basic Needs Satisfaction Scale (Deci and Ryan, 2000)
ScaleThird age
(50-75)
Mean*SD4th age (76+)
Mean*SDEffect sizeCompetence30.58 (280)5.1728.44 (87)6.49F = 10 (1,365) p = .002.03Autonomy40.24 (287)6.7839.8 (93)6.4F = .3 (1,378) NS.16Relatedness47.7 (289)6.0147.89 (90)6.09F = .048 (1,377) NS.01Total118.87 (263)14.21116.79 (80)16.42F = 1.22 (1,341) NS.06* Autonomy and Relatedness: min. score = 7, max. score = 49; Competence: min. score = 6, max. score = 42; Total scale: min. score = 21, max. score = 147.
* Figures in brackets indicate the sample size for that measure
Table 8: Standardised canonical discriminant function coefficients and structure matrix
Standardised Canonical Discriminant Function CoefficientsStructure matrixMy age prevents me from doing the things I would like to do..403.500I feel that what happens to me is out of my control..153.361I feel left out of things..101.314I can do the things I want to do.-.007-.157I feel that I can please myself in what I do..142-.040Shortage of money stops me from doing things I want to do.-.005.106I look forward to each day..347-.229I feel that my life has meaning.-.140-.349I enjoy the things that I do.-.452-.365I feel full of energy these days..187-.288I feel that life is full of opportunities.-.254-.376I feel that the future looks good for me.-.047-.362I feel like I am free to decide for myself how to live my life..225-.064I really like the people I interact with.-.152-.205Often, I do not feel very competent.-.138.017I feel pressured in my life..082.179People I know tell me I am good at what I do..168.053I get along with people I come into contact with..121-.125I pretty much keep to myself and don't have a lot of social contacts.-.136.044I generally feel free to express my ideas and opinions..218-.068I consider the people I regularly interact with to be my friends.-.289-.391I have been able to learn interesting new skills recently..414.073In my daily life, I frequently have to do what I'm told..076.112People in my life care about me.-.375-.442Most days I feel a sense of accomplishment from what I do.-.226-.380People I interact with on a daily basis tend to take my feelings into consideration..224.043In my life I do not get much of a chance to show how capable I am..093.129There are not many people that I am close to.-.088.096I feel like I can pretty much be myself in my daily situations.-.035-.163The people I interact with regularly do not seem to like me much.-.183.090I often do not feel very capable.-.067.016There is not much opportunity for me to decide for myself how to do things in my daily life..116.231People are generally pretty friendly towards me.-.277-.328
Table 9: Rotated component matrix
Factor 1
Purpose2
Autonomy/Control 3
Social affirmationI enjoy the things that I do.819I look forward to each day.812I feel that my life has meaning.785I feel that the future looks good for me.760-.269I feel that life is full of opportunities.738-.264I feel full of energy these days.678-.347I can do the things I want to do.633I feel that I can please myself in what I do.560I feel that what happens to me is out of my control.631Often, I do not feel very competent.585I often do not feel very capable.576I feel pressured in my life.557I feel left out of things.539-.271There is not much opportunity for me to decide for myself how to do things in my daily life-.219.537My age prevents me from doing the things I would like to do-.286.518In my life I do not get much of a chance to show how capable I am.479In my daily life, I frequently have to do what I'm told.417I pretty much keep to myself and don't have a lot of social contacts.410-.272There are not many people that I am close to.407-.254Shortage of money stops me from doing things I want to do.356The people I interact with regularly do not seem to like me much.316I get along with people I come into contact with.730I really like the people I interact with.662I consider the people I regularly interact with to be my friends.646People are generally pretty friendly towards me.592People in my life care about me-.207.581People I know tell me I am good at what I do.518Most days I feel a sense of accomplishment from what I do.343-.335.500I generally feel free to express my ideas and opinions-.332.490I have been able to learn interesting new skills recently.234.464I feel like I can pretty much be myself in my daily situations-.307.412I feel like I am free to decide for myself how to live my life-.323.407People I interact with on a daily basis tend to take my feelings into consideration.294
Table 10: Comparison of factor scores between those participating in music and non-music groups
Music (280)Non Music (62)Effect sizeFactor 1: Purpose0.088 -0.398F = 12.39 (1,340) p = .0001.19Factor 2: Autonomy/control-0.0680.310F = 7.423 (1,340) p = .007.15Factor 3: Social affirmation0.052-0.234F = 4.19 (1,340) p = 0.041 .11
Table 11: Differences in factor scores for 3rd and 4th age participants in the music groups
3rd age (209)4th age
(64)Effect sizeFactor 1: Purpose0.157-0.179F = 5.819 (1,271) p = .017.13Factor 2: Autonomy/control-0.1070.032F = .943 (1,271) NS.06Factor 3: Social affirmation0.0600.056F = .001 (1,271) NS.002
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